BOOK REPORT- HUMAN SEXUALITY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

BOOK REPORT- HUMAN SEXUALITY - Essay Example e problem is that these women often do not seek professional help, preferring to put up with their problems, while unresolved sexual issues can have serious consequences in a variety of health problems. Streicher is a qualified sexologist and gynecologist. Having a long experience in these areas, she is able to help all women better understand their body and thus recognize the signs of various sexual problems. That is what makes this book especially interesting for me and that is why I have decided to choose this book. Reading this book allows all women to have knowledge that can help solve numerous health issues and therefore significantly improve the quality of their sex life. In addition, the value of this book is that the author gives clear and evidence-based explanations for the various physical states and manifestations of various diseases. Every woman has the right to obtain pleasure in her sex life, and this book can be of great help in this regard by providing with practical and valuable

The Dubliners a collection of short stories by James Joyce Essay Example for Free

The Dubliners a collection of short stories by James Joyce Essay James Joyce wrote The Dubliners, a collection of short stories. One in particular called Eveline influenced the narrative seen in Far From Home Far From Home is written in the third person and is a character driven story. Free indirect discourse has been used to make the reader relate to the character. This technique allows the audience to gain insight into the characters thoughts feelings and dilemmas without using the first person narrative. Examples of when Joyce uses free indirect discourse can be seen in the third person narratives such as, Eveline, The Two Gallants and The Dead. In Eveline the main characters ambivalence is revealed at the beginning of the story: She tried to weigh each side of the question. The reader becomes aware of what Eveline is thinking and feeling about leaving home. This line describes almost entirely what the story is about the confusion and thoughtfulness Eveline is putting into leaving home. The protagonist in Far From Home is described using a third persons perspective. When the protagonists in Joyces stories are young or adolescent he uses first person narrative to direct the story. The stories Araby, An Encounter and The Sisters are written in this narrative. In order to identify the first person narratives pronouns such as I My or Me are used. When Joyces main character is an adult he writes in the third person narrative. Eveline, Counterparts and a Little cloud are written in third person narrative and to identify the narrative, pronouns such as He/She His/Her and It are used. Far From Home employs the third person narrative because Penny, like Eveline, is seen as an adult. This method in Far From Home shows that Joyces techniques are incorporated into the story. Local dialect and street names, as seen in Araby and The two Gallants, are also seen in Far From Home. In The Two Gallants street names are used regularly to convey a documentary style attachment to reality They walked along Nassau Street and then turned into Kildare Street. Far From Home refers to places like OlDive and street names such as Morrison Street. This also conveys a sense of authenticity. Slang terms such as on the turf, used in The two Gallants give the reader an informal approach to the story thus creating a sense of realism. Far From Home also incorporates this style by using chuck the bottle and colloquial dialect, authenticity is added to the narration. Far From Home resembles a storyline similar to that of Eveline. Penny, the protagonist in Far From Home, is paralysed by her fathers terrible drinking habits and aggression. Both characters know that their father may not survive alone. Penny lives with her father and finds it hard to cope with his drinking habits. Her father also has a girlfriend called Kristy who has two young children. Penny has an ill mother which she cannot see. This dilemma conveys a great deal of the frustration seen in the story. Similarly, Eveline feels trapped by her fathers drinking and violence, yet feels that father is too weak to survive by himself. Her father was becoming old lately, and he would miss her, suggests that Evelines father is weak. Pennys problems and thoughts drive the story, thus making it a character driven story. Far From Home intentionally develops Pennys character rather than focusing on conveying a detailed plot. This technique reflects Joyces use of minimal action in his stories, creating a sense of paralysis which engulfs his characters. Both stories show the characters as they are facing a life changing dilemma; both characters are unable to complete their escape from it. This is an example of how minimal action and lack of resolution work together to reflect the theme of paralysis. Far From Home also has a similar theme to that of The Dead. Penny feels that she has missed opportunities to love her mother and Gabriel feels he has missed the opportunity to love his wife in her youth. Penny resents the fact that she had stayed away from her mother for so long just because her father told her to. She realises that her mother will die soon and that they have missed a great deal of family bonding. The fact that both characters feel they have missed out on certain important events in their lives shows the similarities in the stories. In the sense that Joyce uses paralysis, Far From Home uses cynicism. In The Dead Gabriel patronises his family and friends make himself ridiculous by quoting poetry to them which they could not understand Pennys friend is also seen as been extremely pathetic. In the Two Gallants, The Dead and A Little Cloud, the characters are portrayed as been cynical or rejecting their home country. In The Dead Gabriel is called a west Briton; Little Chandler says minute vermin-like life Pennys cynical side is revealed by the way she patronises Sarah: Sarah was too dependent and weak in her eyes. and calls the children, screaming bundles of hate, Far From Home relates to the paralytic and cynical attitude Joyces characters are all ready in. In Far From Home grammar is occasionally used to create a dramatic effect. When Penny leaves her home and begins to make her way to the fields, Left down Morrison Street towards what looked like a dead end, a fragmented sentence emphasises the dead end at the end of the sentence. This is to subtly elaborate the paralysis in the story. To emphasise the situation at the beginning of Far From Home intentionally complex grammatical construction is used. Compound and simple sentences are regularly used for effect in James Joyces stories. He ties these techniques with a combination of many abstract sentences to create abstract ideas. Far From Home begins with an abstract idea for dramatic effect. The sound slowly emerging from the street, the raw talent of the local Charity for the Church band, calmed and slowed the frustrated breath escaping a hard chest. By using modifiers, words or phrases used to specify the nature of another, the abstract idea can be emphasised. The sound is modified by explaining where it is coming from. The sentence is abstract because of how it is constructed and modified. In The Two Gallants A shade of mockery..But Corley had not a subtle mind. is a combination of sentences introducing abstract ideas to make the reader think thoroughly about the situation presented. Far From Home is a fragmented narrative; this is to achieve effective characterisation as each fragment reveals a layer of depth to Pennys character. Fragmentation also reflects the confusion Penny has faced throughout her childhood and adolescence. This is further intensified through foreshadowing, which is a literary technique used to reveal a partial amount of the ending without revealing what happens, Far From Home employs this technique: could still feel the ghost of her mothers, soft, cold hands. This is because the story is a fragmented narrative and the foreshadowing adds emphasis on the upset state of mind Penny is in. The protagonists sense of frustration is intensified with the use of emotive lexis and pathetic fallacy. Modifiers and verbs such as frustrated, escaping and peace erupted all add to the theme running throughout Far From Home. In order to make the reader understand the build up of paralysis and frustration at the end of the story, the oppressive mood needed to run constantly throughout the story. To be successful the story begins with Penny calming down from a stressful situation calmed and slowed the frustrated breathFrom this point on Penny is faced with frustrating or annoying situations: the screaming amongst the peace erupted The children Penny has to look after are a lot to take on at such a young age and Penny finds she is unable to cope with them. The word clouded is used as a pathetic fallacy; to not only describe the feelings of the protagonist, but to also reflect the dull and confusing situation she is bound by. Another example used in Far From Home is the room felt icy and empty. It felt like her head. Pennys surroundings represent the emotions she is feeling. For dramatic effect, modifiers, with emotive connotations to convey the stressful or frustrating situations are used: the phrase the stench of the bottle rose reflects the disgust and hate Penny has for her fathers lifestyle. Stench is the word in this phrase which is most important as this is the word which conveys a disgusted tone. To continue the tone of disgust in the following paragraph other emotive words such as circled and disgust are used. Semantics reflecting frustration and paralysis are used at the beginning of Far From Home and repeated throughout the story. The opening words are selected to combine the idea of escapism from paralysis, confusion and frustration. Frustration quite obviously reflects the ongoing theme and hard chest emphasises the feeling of anger. The word hard is an emotive word to reflect the tension built up with anger. Escaping dramatically emphasises the tone of the story. The dramatic sentence at the beginning of the story establishes the paralysed tone reiterated throughout Far From Home. Alliteration is used when Sarah is introduced. stood, startled and shocked. The alliteration of this phrase reflects the attitude and thoughts Penny has for her. Sarah is obviously an unorganised and unstable woman; this sentence reflects her personality and disposition. Personification is another method of incorporating escapism from the paralytic lifestyle Penny is subjected to. Personification is used repeatedly throughout Far From Home it is used mainly to describe the moon as another person that Penny can relate to: The moon whispered to Penny, An example of personification can be seen in Eveline when Evelines hands are given human attributes: Her hands clutched the iron in frenzy. The connotations of the word frenzy emphasise and represent the state of Evelines mind and her feelings of confusion and fright. At the end of Far From Home the same technique is used. Frustration gripped her heart this reflects the ongoing theme of frustration and the emotions Penny feels for her lost mother. It was like a wave of warmth The use of this simile adds to the effect of Penny calming down and the mention of waves or referral to the sea is usually incorporated with Penny relaxing throughout the story. Araby; a story in which Joyce tackles the theme of the inadequacy of adolescence, employs an extended metaphor for the exotic surprises that we expect to discover in life and the disappointment experienced. The Bazaar represents the exotic, exciting lifestyle and the disappointment at the Bazaar represents the disappointment in life. To imitate the use of an extended metaphor in Far From Home, Pennys mothers illness represents the paralysis Penny is experiencing as a result of her lack of communication with her mother; Penny knows she can never share any moments of true bonding because her mother is too ill. The end of Far From Home displays the use juxtaposition of these two words small, strong Along with the use of modifiers such as mountainous, consumed and engulfed Pennys life seems to be represented by all that surrounds her in the hospital room with her mother. She is paralysed by life, because she is too small to fight it.

Free College Essays - Self-discovery in Shes Come Undone by Wally Lamb :: Shes Come Undone

She's Come Undone: Self-discovery  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Throughout She's Come Undone, Wally Lamb emphasizes the importance of self-discovery to one's life. Dolores has several epiphanies throughout the course of the novel, including her realization that all of her failed relationships are not solely her fault. She learns she is worth loving and is capable of surviving on her own. With each discovery about herself, Dolores learns to love herself a little more and blame herself a little less. Dolores' first realization is a sub-conscious one. Right before she tries to commit suicide she telephones her mother's childhood friend Geneva (Lamb 249). This is a cry for help and is her first step towards recovery. Dolores' next discovery comes after a long period of therapy, paid for by Geneva. Dolores' therapist, Dr. Shaw, attempts to rewrite her childhood from the time she was in the womb on. He takes on the role of her mother (268). As her negative childhood memories are replaced by positive ones, Dolores gains a new sense of self-esteem and confidence. She loses all of her extra weight (269). Dolores funnels her energy into creative pursuits like Etch-A-Sketching rather than self-destructive behavior. Eventually she is able to leave Dr. Shaw's care and go into the real world to provide for herself (283). Perhaps Dolores leaves the care of Dr. Shaw too soon. Shortly after getting her own apartment she begins dating Dante. Ashamed of her past, she creates a fictional life story for herself. She lives a lie the whole time she is living with Dante. She writes to her grandmother and falsely describes her marriage. When she catches Dante sleeping with one of his students, she finally wakes up. She realizes that no man is worth the pain of losing her identity, and she also realizes that her identity cannot be defined by the man she is with. After her grandmother's death she finally reveals her true self to Dante. In frustration and anger she tells him all of the events of her past, from her weight problems to her rape to her time spent in a mental institution. She feels completely free for the first time. Dolores' final stage of self-discovery comes with her relationship with Thayer. She realizes that he is what she has truly wanted for her entire life. It is the first time she has found luck and happiness in love.

Reaction on the Prestige Movie Essay

Reaction: Contentment. This is one thing that the two lead characters in the movie do not contain over themselves. They both made sacrifices just to be able to have the title of the one who has the greatest magic trick. They sacrificed their friendship, their families, even their lives. Before they started their rivalry, they both have good relationship with each other, good family, a good life. But what happened after they tried to uncover each other’s secret? Because of greed and personal motive, they both lost everything. The story looked like a tragedy, horror, and dramatic movie for me. It’s like an exaggerated version of how we live our lives, sometimes. Even though we don’t admit, but sometimes, there is some part of us that want to be on top of someone because we don’t feel satisfied and we can’t accept the fact that there is someone better than us. Here in the story, the secret is the symbol of what we want to get from someone. And what the two characters did in the story are examples of our actions in real life. One makes the attack and the other one makes the defense. Robert, who was the one making the offense, wanted to know Alfred’s secret, not just because he did it for revenge, but also because he wanted to own the prestige that Alfred had. He did everything that would put Alfred down. On the other hand, Alfred was the one making the defense. He sacrificed everything that he had in order for him to get a hold of his fame. In the end, both of them didn’t make it to their goal. Instead, they became losers of their own games. The characters are the epitome of human greed. Greed that we cannot pull out of our being human. It seems impossible for a human to be able to escape this kind of bad attitude. But as we grow older, as we mature, we learn how to build up goodness in ourselves because we realize the true meaning of life. We realize that there are things that we cannot achieve, obtain and maintain. Even our own life is not permanent. Nothing is permanent in this world except our soul. Now, as we think of this, we will be able to get the  idea that the most important things in this world cannot be seen. But it can be felt. We’re fortunate that God has provided us the greatest give anyone could ever get. And the best way to give back to our Father, I think, is to be grateful enough, and learn how to appreciate the things that we have, nothing less.

Negotiation in Management Decision Making Essay

Having been approached by The Director of the Cowley Council Council (CCC) regarding an industrial dispute with their refuse collectors, a report has been prepared to give insight into the field of negotiation and aid the council in their talks with the refuse collectors. The dispute is primarily concerned with CCC’s plans to change working practices but there are also a number of other issues regarding pay, shift patterns and recent cuts in the training budget and expenses. The refuse collectors are threatening to go on strike if their demands are not met, an action that the council would undoubtedly like to avoid. According to Rubin and Brown (1975), negotiation refers to a process in which individuals work together to formulate agreements regarding an issue or issues in dispute. An agreement will only occur if the offers made are accepted by both of the parties (Neale & Northcraft 1991) and should lead to order and stability, foster social harmony, increase feelings of self-efficacy, reduce the probability of future conflict, and stimulate economic prosperity (Rubin et al 1994). Getting the negotiation game right is ever important for managers â€Å"as the global economy expands, as the service sector grows, as corporate restructuring continues and as employees continue to be concerned with managing their own careers† (Neale and Bazerman 1992: 3). The initial stages of the report will cover theory and research on the decision-analytic approach to negotiation and discuss its relevance and potential use for CCC regarding its dispute with the Cowley refuse collectors. I will then identify potential biases and pitfalls that can act as barriers to effective negotiation that CCC should try to avoid. Finally I will conclude and outline suggested proposals for CCC to consider with the aim of assisting and improving their negotiations with the refuse collectors. The decision-analytic approach to decision making is a more pragmatic alternative to the dominant psychological and economic perspectives, which contain a number of limitations. The individual-attribute literature fails to measure dispositions adequately, the situational literature does not consider the importance of the negotiator’s perceptions in interpreting situational characteristics (Neale and Bazerman 1991: 20) and the game theory unrealistically assumes â€Å"impeccably rational, supersmart people† (Raiffa 1982, 2001). What differentiates the decision-analytic approach is its focus on â€Å"how erring folks like you and me actually behave† rather than on how we would behave if we were â€Å"smarter, thought harder, were more consistent, were all knowing† (Raiffa, 1982: 21). Previous psychological and economic approaches have focused on describing how people make decisions or prescribing how to improve decision making. However, â€Å"very little interaction has occurred between the descriptive and prescriptive camps† (Neale and Bazerman 1991: 20), and it is Raiffa’s (1982) avocation of an â€Å"asymmetrical† prescriptive/descriptive relationship that makes the decision-analytic approach stand out, â€Å"creating a prescriptive need to descriptively understand how negotiators actually make decisions† (Bazerman et al 2001). Many scholars hold the view that the prescriptions gained from this model are more valuable than those offered by more traditional approaches (Lax and Sebenius 1986). Raiffa’s framework for approaching effective negotiations distinguishes three sets of information, a combination of which determines the structure of the negotiation game: each parties alternative to a negotiated agreement, each parties set of interests, and the relative importance of each parties interests. â€Å"To develop agreement, people need to get a good understanding of their own preferences and priorities, to communicate those to their counterpart, and to integrate information about other’s preferences and priorities into their own understanding of the problem at hand† (De Dreu et al 2000). Before CCC enter into any negotiations with the refuse collectors, it is imperative to determine a Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA), â€Å"the standard against which any proposed agreement should be  measured† (Fisher, and Ury 1981). Negotiations can be greatly improved by identifying a BATNA and â€Å"carefully evaluating the negotiated agreement against that alternative† (Ertel 1999). This helps negotiators fix a reservation point, a lower bound, which is crucial to monitor throughout the negotiation. Agreements that provide more value than the BATNA are preferred over impasse; likewise any agreements that provide less than the BATNA should be rejected. A potential BATNA for CCC would be to look into other refuse collection companies opening up the possibility of privatisation. The privatisation of refuse collection is a serious consideration in many areas of the UK and a â€Å"major debating point for the city council† (Birmingham Mail 2013) in Birmingham. Waste Concern, a private refuse collection company, claims that 17% of council tax goes towards refuse collection and that privatisation would lead to a cheaper, more frequent collection service, and a more efficient recycling system (edieWaste 2010). If CCC values the current refuse collectors, despite the current dispute, and they are reluctant to consider such an ultimatum, they could consider a more strategic change by introducing the proposed changes incrementally, or by altering the amount of changes being made. It is crucial for negotiators to understand each party’s key interests and how they align (Reardon 2005 : 28). Fisher and Ury (1981) emphasize the importance of the distinction between a parties’ position, and their interests, with a position being the stated requirement that a party demands from the other side, whist an interest is the underlying desire of the negotiator and the motives for their position. It can however be difficult to understand ones interests and those of the other party. CCC’s primary interests are increasing productivity and decreasing costs, whilst the refuse collectors’ interests are concerned with their financial rewards. It is however important to try and understand all of the parties’ interests. The Personnel Director may be under pressure to cut costs in order to stick to a budget so her personal interests may have more focus on performing her job in order to maintain it. The interests of the refuse collectors also concern HR aspects such as, work life balance and training and development. These interests are motives behind the position of their threat of strike, and further scrutiny may offer CCC potential areas to focus on during negotiation. Focussing on deeper interests can provide a more reasonable bargaining platform and a creative and practical solution to a negotiation. Once the interests of each party have been established, it is important for negotiators to try and value the relative importance of each party’s interests. This then allows the parties to effectively trade-off less important issues to gain more important issues. If CCC can establish that, for example, the refuse collectors desire a better work life balance as well as sufficient financial benefits, there may be potential for a medium ground to be reached offering a certain amount of each. The importance of interests often comes down to economic factors, thus job security is frequent consideration. In this instance the job security of the refuse collectors is at risk as there is a chance of redundancies if they do not cooperate. This information provides â€Å"the building blocks for thinking analytically about a negotiation† (Bazerman and Moore 2009:154) and prepares the parties for the two primary tasks of negotiation: creating and claiming value (Lax and Sebenius 1986). It is crucial for negotiators to establish the reservation points of both parties. That is the worst possible outcome they will accept before a negotiation is impasse. With both reservation points established, a positive bargaining zone is created, which allows negotiators to â€Å"aim for a resolution that is barely acceptable to the other party† (Bazerman and Moore 2009: 156) by getting as close to their reservation point as possible. It is however, also vital for both parties to try and cooperate in creating value in the negotiation, as there is often â€Å"opportunity to considerably enlarge the pie before cutting it into shares for each side to enjoy† (Raiffa 2002: 91). Lax and Sebenius (1986) stress that differences must be seen as opportunities, as opposed to barriers, that can be explored to find the most efficient solution rather than just ‘satisficing’ (Simon 1956). According to Schmidt and Tannenbaum (1960) â€Å"differences can help to increase the range and variety of alternatives suggested† and even potentially â€Å"enrich ones own goals, ideas, and methods. † So CCC must capitalise on the differences in the party preferences (Pruitt 1983) by evaluating the  position of the refuse collectors, and looking into finer detail at the interests behind these positions, before attempting to develop â€Å"novel alternatives† through â€Å"creative problem solving† (Neale and Bazerman 1991: 24). Negotiation then depends fundamentally on parties’ ability to trade issues against each other (Froman & Cohen 1970) and â€Å"place demands and formulate concessions to foster agreements that meet their own goals, while avoiding that the counterpart leaves the situation† (De Dreu et al 2000). CCC could for example offer certain alternative benefits to the refuse collectors if the changes are implemented. Perhaps an investment in more efficient equipment and machinery would be appealing. There are certain tools that negotiators can use in order to aid their efforts in collecting information and subsequently increase the probability of creating value. It is certainly the case that deception is often used in negotiation (Schweitzer 1997) and can be an effective strategy for increasing one’s own outcomes (O’Connor and Carnevale 1997). However in this instance, both parties must also note that building trust and initiating a â€Å"free flow of information is critical to finding and integrative agreement† (Johns and Saks 2011)). In heated negotiations this is far easier said than done, as neither side wants to give away too much information on their stance on particular issues. However, CCC is in the position to try and create a trustworthy relationship in order to improve their informational position. The director could inform the refuse collectors of the councils’ pressures and financial limitations that are the driving factor behind the need to change the working practices and make cuts. If no suitable solution is agreed upon, then there may have to be redundancies, as the council cannot overspend. Another tactic could be to strategically disclose some information. As behaviours in negotiation are often reciprocated (Lewicki and Litterer 1985), this may prompt the refuse collectors to open up and start revealing information which may facilitate the negotiation process. CCC must also ask a lot of questions to increase the chances of ascertaining critical information. According to Bazerman and Moore (2009: 162) â€Å"asking questions and listening actively are the keys to collecting important new information from the other side† but it also important for negotiators to remember that information can be gained from what is not said, as well as  what is said. An alternative to trading issues would be for CCC to arrange some kind of contingency contract to verify weather their plans to change working practices is fair or weather it is being rightly disputed by the refuse collectors. CCC could assess a weeks worth of collection rounds and together with the refuse collectors, formulate weekly targets in terms of time and productivity. A weeks trial on this type of contingency contract could easily establish weather CCC’s planned changes are justifiable or not. There are a number of ways in which contingent contracts can benefit the outcomes to negotiations as outlined by Bazerman and Gillespie (1999). Firstly organising the implementation of a contingency contract can identify bluffs by insincere parties. This will aid CCC initially with regard to their uncertainties over issues such as the number of staff needed on each collection round, shift patterns and pay. Contingency contracts are also a useful tool in incentivising performance. It may provide more motivation for the refuse collectors to start working at or above the levels specified in the contract.

Please, Please Do Your Homework Before Pitching

Please, Please Do Your Homework Before Pitching Frequently I receive emails from prospective writers asking what I seek for FundsforWriters. Some go as far as to ask what I pay, how I pay, and how quickly I pay without so much as a hint to what they propose to write. While I know cultures change from country to country, even state to state, the fact is its rather presumptuous to ask how youre going to get paid before you demonstrate youre a writer. If you wish to pitch a magazine, website, newsletter, anthology or prospective client, please do the following first: 1) Read up all you can on the entity before you make a connection. If its a magazine, study the ads, the old articles, and the masthead to see how many articles are usually written in-staff versus freelance. And if they have guidelines, 2) Have a website or blog that demonstrates who you are and what you are capable of doing. 3) Know what youd like to pitch to the publication after understanding what they need. When you pitch, do NOT say the following: 1) You are a new writer seeking to break in. 2) You want to know how and when youll get paid. 3) You want the editor to tell you what to write. 4) You cannot find the guidelines. 5) You are retired, a student, a stay-at-home mom, disabled, a PhD candidate, etc. unless that has everything to do with what you are pitching. Its all about the article and your experience in writing THAT article, not your lifes history or ID. When you pitch, the editor absolutely wants the following: 1) A memo to them personally, not the team, or the editor, or to whom it may concern. 2) A pitch for a story that matches the publication perfectly. 3) Enough

Buboonic Plague essays

Buboonic Plague essays No one - peasant or aristocrat - was safe from the disease [bubonic plague], and once it was contracted, a horrible and painful death was almost a certainty. The dead and the dying lay in the streets abandoned by frightened friends and relatives (482). This certainly paints an accurate and horrifying picture of the fourteenth century during the plague. The bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death or The Plague, (Hindley 103) was one of the major scourges of the Middle Ages. It killed indiscriminately without remorse or thought of consequences. Because the plague was so widespread, theories about causes, blame and a variety of supposed cures abounded. Most of these were without basis or fact and relied on myths and rumors. Theories for the causes and blames came from ignorance and hate, two horrible things married by fear. Some of the cures were not much better than the plague itself. The plague was transmitted to humans by fleas from infected rats that nested in people's roofs (Matthew 154). Fourteenth century man had no concept of how the disease was spread or how it could be stopped. The plague was transmitted to western Europe from China along trade routes (Matthew 154). Once the plague had reached the coast of Europe, it was soon transmitted to the countryside through the commercial trade networks (Matthew 154). The first cases of the plague occurred in a European colony called Genoa (Blum, Cameron and Barnes 38). It was "besieged in 1347" by mongols, who flung plague riddled bodies over the walls of Genoa. This was considered "an early form of biological warfare" (Blum, Cameron and Barnes 38). According to Matthews, "Experts could do nothing to cure or explain the plague" (154). The people of this period had no idea what they were dealing with. Even if they had known what caused the plague, their medical technology was almost nonexistent, so they could not have invented a cure (Matthew 154). Though the doctors of the tim...

Posthumous and Posthumously

Posthumous and Posthumously Posthumous and Posthumously Posthumous and Posthumously By Maeve Maddox Researching another topic altogether, I came across this startling use of the word posthumously: Nicholas Schmidle, whose narrative account of the death of Osama bin was completed without ever interviewing any members of SEAL Team 6, posthumously wrote an article entitled â€Å"In the Crosshairs’’ in The New Yorker. Posthumously means â€Å"after death.† An article may be published posthumously, but writing one posthumously would be quite a feat. The adjective posthumous is applied to an action or reputation occurring, arising, or continuing after death. For example, John Kennedy Toole acquired a posthumous reputation for his novel A Confederacy of Dunces, which wasn’t published until eleven years after his death. Posthumously, he won a Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. Or perhaps the passive would be better here: He was awarded the prize posthumously. The word comes from the classical Latin adjective postumus that was used to describe a child born after the father’s death. The h in the English word may be the result of folk etymology by association with the word humus (earth), or by someone’s learned desire to associate it with the Latin verb humare, â€Å"to bury.† Here are examples of posthumous and posthumously used correctly on the Web: Murdered NYPD officers Rafael Ramos and Wenjian Liu were posthumously promoted to the rank of detective. The posthumous birth of a child has been a common occurrence throughout human history, but now â€Å"posthumous conception† has become possible. The technology that permits parents to bank sperm and eggs for later use has created legal problems no one could have anticipated a few decades ago. I did find this quotation in which the word posthumously is used in an unexpected way: Novelist Nadine Gordimer told writer Christopher Hitchens that â€Å"A serious person should try to write posthumously.† Hitchens interpreted her unusual use of the word to mean to write as if the â€Å"usual constraints of fashion, commerce, self-censorship, public and, perhaps especially, intellectual opinion- did not operate.† Bottom line: Ordinarily, people who are still alive can’t do anything posthumously. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:How to Punctuate References to Dates and Times55 Boxing Idioms40 Irregular Verbs That Can End in â€Å"-t†

There are many qualities that are needed to be a good leader or Essay - 1

There are many qualities that are needed to be a good leader or manager. To what extent can these be learnt through study and tr - Essay Example It, therefore, follows that a good leader must be able to impart inspiration, optimism, integrity, confidence and unity among those they lead. Of equal importance is the fact that these qualities may be inborn (although this must only be viewed as the partiality to develop competencies better than the rest) among some individuals, but must be acquired via study and training among others (Doh 2003, 243). This paper will research the extent to which such qualities can be learnt through study and training and give supporting examples. It is an agreeable argument that leadership can, and has been learnt. However, it is equally agreeable that book knowledge, or taught knowledge in the field of leadership, is very limited in terms of its effectiveness. In this sense, leadership must be viewed as a â€Å"performance activity†. The focus then needs to move away from whether leaders are made or born to what they have made of their learning. The extent of what is taught to leaders as be st practice is only applicable to the two extremes of either specific or generalized audiences, and the possibility of the learner never encountering either of them cannot be understated (Kickul & Neuman 2000, 33). To be useful, what is taught must further be learned in more intuitive, applicable and personal circumstances and environments. This serves to emphasize the significance of flexibility. For example, a leader can be taught the art of being persuasive and inspirational in the way they present their ideas and communicate. On the other hand, when some attributes are perceived as dispositions, they cannot be learned. This can best be viewed in the sense that a leader cannot be taught to readily accept risk-taking or be ambitious because these are the possible products of genes, family or life. It is only through immersion into their fields that leaders can learn their way around strategic thinking and develop a capacity of conceptual thinking. Once learning leadership starts, the process never really stops, and no single study or training module can produce a leader who will effectively exhibit the same qualities under all circumstances (Kickul & Neuman 2000, 29). Therefore, leadership cannot be studied or trained as an enduring individual feature. This is made more complex because most leadership strategies require that a leader unlearns default responses, assumptions and old habits related to human nature and implement new behaviors and choices. Further, most lessons in leadership education are inclined towards conveying technique and style. Therefore, much of what is taught ends up being more of management and not leadership. In such situations, it is possible for effective learning to take place and even for the taught notions to be put into practice, but one will still fail at being an effective leader. While inspiration, intelligence, optimism, integrity and vision still remain constant as some of leadership’s essential principles and can be studies over, the ability to amalgamate principles and practice does not imply that one has learned leadership (Kickul & Neuman 2000, 32). The limiting factor is that what studies teach does not necessarily make aspiring leaders learn the prerequisites; knowing and practicing are distinguished. Contemporary leaders confuse their

Law Enforcement Response to School Violence Essay

Law Enforcement Response to School Violence - Essay Example This includes elementary school, colleges and even universities. This means that the child is prone to violence in school regardless of which level of education he is at. Some people view this phenomenon as a manifestation of the failing standards of the public health. It is a form of antisocial behaviors that could have originated earlier in the life of the child. It continues to young adulthood. School violence takes place when the youth, or the child, takes these anti social behaviors to the school. It comes in many forms. The child may bully his school mates. He might use physical violence and even weapons on his victims. The child in school can be the perpetrator or the victim of this act. He may also be a mere victim. Whichever way you look at it, the child is the most affected by school violence. School violence has many effects. It can result to death or even persisting effects like trauma. That is the reason why society has always tended to respond to this phenomenon. One such kind of response is the application of law enforcing techniques. This is mainly by the authorities concerned, may it be the school or police authorities. There are various ways to determine whether violence is school based or not. It has to meet certain thresholds for it to be labeled school violence. It has to occur on the school property (Guthner, 2002). Alternatively, it could have occurred on the way to the learning institution. When it takes place on the way to or from a school sponsored occasion, it can also be called school violence (Malinowski, 2003). In looking at the law enforcement response to school violence, we will look at how they respond to both the victim and the perpetrator. The school administration is the first line of response to school based violence (Kimberly, 2004). This involves the teachers and the school security apparatus. Remember that school violence can be perpetrated by the students or from an outsider to the school. Then the other fall back is the law administrators. There are various ways to respond to this form of violence. There is the strategy that is used when the violence has already taken place. This is called the intervention strategy. 0It includes evacuation of the victim. The victim of violence is taken to a medical facility. This is if he had acquired injuries (Russell, 2005). The school should be having a medical facility on the property. This is a dispensary or a school based health provider. This goes a long way to save the life of the victim. Arrangements could be made to take the victim to a professional doctor using ambulance or any other form of school transport. Counseling is very important if there is evidence that the victim could have experienced psychological problems. The perpetrator is then taken by the school administration for interrogation. It is the responsibility of the administration to find out why the perpetrator resorted to violence. If he is a student, counseling or expulsion from the school are some of the strategies employed by the school administration. He is apprehen ded by the school administration if he is from outside the school. Another response is to prevent the occurrence of the violence (Tonkin, 2006). This includes the process of identifying sources of threats and neutralizing them. The law enforcers should be

Corn Supply and Demand Schedule Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Corn Supply and Demand Schedule - Essay Example By showing the relationship between price and quantity, the demand schedule most commonly consists of two columns. The first column lists the current price of a product, listed in ascending or descending order. The second column lists the quantity of the product that is desired, or demanded, at that price. As the price rises, the quantity demanded tends to reduce. When the data in the table is graphed, creating the demand curve, it demonstrates the relationship between various price points and the corresponding demand. The demand curve can provide a way to estimate the demand for the product at any point along the curve. Demand and Supply Schedules A demand schedule is typically used in conjunction with a supply schedule showing the quantity of a good that would be supplied to the market at given price levels. Graphing both schedules on a chart with the axes described above, it is possible to obtain a graphical representation of the supply and demand dynamics of a particular market. Ceteris paribus, the market reaches an equilibrium where the supply and demand schedules intersect. At this point, the corresponding price is the equilibrium market price, and the corresponding quantity is the equilibrium quantity exchanged in the market.

Ethics Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ethics Critique - Essay Example If the drivers are well understood, it is possible to justify the moral judgment using psychological research. However, some people will make moral judgment without being driven by anything but out of other factors such as influence. Sometimes, it may be impossible to differentiate if the decision was made for given motives or out of influence. In such cases, it becomes impossible to use psychological research to justify the moral judgment. This essay argues that the capability of psychological research to justify moral judgment depends on whether the motives and factors leading the judgment are understood. Psychological research which explains how human beings make moral judgments can be used to justify a given judgment or action. Although there is no clear reason, why people make certain choices and not others, people will tend to justify their actions depending on the circumstances. In Greene’s (363) opinion, humans wish to make judgments based on reasoning. However, most o f them end up making their decisions based on emotions. Therefore, if the emotions are well understood, it is possible to understand how humans will justify their actions, or the possible reasons that they will give for their actions. In Greene opinion, (364) â€Å"People tend to have emotional responses to personal moral violations, responses that incline them to judge against performing those actions.† However, it sometimes becomes hard to justify actions since some people make decisions without even thinking. It is only after making a decision that humans try to reason as they seek to justify their action or decide if it was right or wrong. Since it is well understood that people tend to make decisions depending on their intuitions, it only requires the researcher to understand the intuitions of the person making the decision to be able to tell the way they will justify their actions. Since there are no reasons for doing certain actions, it is possible to predict the way p eople will justify their moral judgment. It is possible to justify moral judgment using psychological research since people will justify actions as wrong or right depending on how the society views certain actions. Aristotle (173-174) claims that if a certain action is perceived to be wrong and a person commits it, it is obvious that he or she will try to find any reasons that will make the action appear right. Therefore, it only requires one to understand perceptions of the society regarding certain actions to be able to predict or tell how the doer of any action will justify it. Another reason why psychological research can be used to justify a given judgment is that some actions are performed out of obedience and not reason. It thus requires the researcher to know the motivation behind certain action. If an action of political aggression is performed, the doer will obviously justify the action by giving political reasons. For example, a dictator is likely to justify their dictato rial actions by demonstrating why humans require to be forced to act in a certain way. A person doing charity work will justify their actions by finding reasons on how their actions are helpful to others. Additionally, Milgram (184) posits that some actions are performed out of rebellion. If the researcher understands the nature of person performing a given action, then it is possible to justify the action without understanding the reason behind it. It only requires one to understand the nature of the person doing the action to be able to pre

Five key objectives for Eastman Kodak Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Five key objectives for Eastman Kodak - Essay Example According to the paper  Kodak was considered as the most profitable corporation in America, which gave its shareholders a return of 18% for many years. The company has continuously invested in developing its competitive advantage in photography business. It is observed that 40% of the revenue of company came from outside United States (US). Though the company had encountered huge profit but the situation was not the same over the past few years as it encountered external pressure in form of competition.This essay discusses that  the new objective changed the imaging group of Kodak which included motion pictures, consumer products and audiovisual products, consumer electronics and photo finishing. The new objective filled the gap in the product line by introducing several new products, which are either prepared by Kodak or any Japanese manufacturers or sold it under the name of Kodak. In order to manage the market share of the company, Kodak took major steps to solidify the market of film processing. It has strategized to stem the flow of low cost foreign photography papers for acquiring control over processing market. The company has also acquired many companies in order to make its base strong in electronic photography sector. This acquisition increased the number of customers for chemical paper products. The declining profit of the company was forced to maintain tits level by massive cost – cutting, which improved efficiency of the products related to photography.

Ethics Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ethics Critique - Essay Example If the drivers are well understood, it is possible to justify the moral judgment using psychological research. However, some people will make moral judgment without being driven by anything but out of other factors such as influence. Sometimes, it may be impossible to differentiate if the decision was made for given motives or out of influence. In such cases, it becomes impossible to use psychological research to justify the moral judgment. This essay argues that the capability of psychological research to justify moral judgment depends on whether the motives and factors leading the judgment are understood. Psychological research which explains how human beings make moral judgments can be used to justify a given judgment or action. Although there is no clear reason, why people make certain choices and not others, people will tend to justify their actions depending on the circumstances. In Greene’s (363) opinion, humans wish to make judgments based on reasoning. However, most o f them end up making their decisions based on emotions. Therefore, if the emotions are well understood, it is possible to understand how humans will justify their actions, or the possible reasons that they will give for their actions. In Greene opinion, (364) â€Å"People tend to have emotional responses to personal moral violations, responses that incline them to judge against performing those actions.† However, it sometimes becomes hard to justify actions since some people make decisions without even thinking. It is only after making a decision that humans try to reason as they seek to justify their action or decide if it was right or wrong. Since it is well understood that people tend to make decisions depending on their intuitions, it only requires the researcher to understand the intuitions of the person making the decision to be able to tell the way they will justify their actions. Since there are no reasons for doing certain actions, it is possible to predict the way p eople will justify their moral judgment. It is possible to justify moral judgment using psychological research since people will justify actions as wrong or right depending on how the society views certain actions. Aristotle (173-174) claims that if a certain action is perceived to be wrong and a person commits it, it is obvious that he or she will try to find any reasons that will make the action appear right. Therefore, it only requires one to understand perceptions of the society regarding certain actions to be able to predict or tell how the doer of any action will justify it. Another reason why psychological research can be used to justify a given judgment is that some actions are performed out of obedience and not reason. It thus requires the researcher to know the motivation behind certain action. If an action of political aggression is performed, the doer will obviously justify the action by giving political reasons. For example, a dictator is likely to justify their dictato rial actions by demonstrating why humans require to be forced to act in a certain way. A person doing charity work will justify their actions by finding reasons on how their actions are helpful to others. Additionally, Milgram (184) posits that some actions are performed out of rebellion. If the researcher understands the nature of person performing a given action, then it is possible to justify the action without understanding the reason behind it. It only requires one to understand the nature of the person doing the action to be able to pre

South Korea Country Risk Analysis Research Paper

South Korea Country Risk Analysis - Research Paper Example South Korea is politically stable and has excellent infrastructure. With consistent reformation policies, the Government has been able to transform the country into a knowledge-based service-oriented economy. The labor market is flexible but the wages are higher than the neighboring countries. The workforce is highly qualified but the country has an aging population as the population growth rate is extremely low. Unemployment rate in the country is very low. Having a culture of uncertainty avoidance, risk assessments would be done and precautions and risk measures adopted. Being a collectivist society, loyalty is given importance. Economically too, the country is sound with low inflation rate, and the currency resilient to shocks. South Korea is an open economy ranking among the top 20 economies in the world. The private sector can operate freely without Government interference. The two major concerns are the aging population and corruption prevalent in the country. However, with the right business partner and sound knowledge of the economy, would help foreign businesses achieve the desired objective. Introduction South Korea, the Republic of Korea, is a presidential republic, a developed country with high standard of living. Having its origin in the World War II, South Korea is a fully functional modern democracy. However, political and economic analysis would help a multinational evaluate investment decisions. Location/Climate South Korea is strategically located on the Korean Strait covering a total area of 99,720 sq. km with a coastline of 2,413 km (CIA, 2012). This mountainous peninsula has the Yellow Sea on the west, and the Sea of Japan on the east. The southern tip of the peninsula lies on the Korea Strait and the East China Sea (Southkoreangovernment, 2012). Most of the land in South Korea is not arable. The peninsula comprises of about three thousand islands that are mostly small and uninhabited. South Korea has a temperate climate with very cold wint ers and a short rainy season. The average January temperature range is -7Â °C to 1Â °C (19Â °F to 33Â °F) in Seoul. Along the southern coast the winter temperatures are higher but they are lower in the inner mountainous areas. June through September is the rainy season. Population The population of South Korea as of July 2012 was 48, 860,500 with 73% of the population being in the 15 to 64 years age group. Population in South Korea has been growing at the rate of 0.204 percent which is considered a very low rate, leading to an aging population (Datamonitor, 2009). The population is mostly homogenous with just about 20,000 Chinese residing in South Korea. However, people of South Korea are either Buddhists or Christians and almost half the population (49.3 percent) does not follow any religion (CIA, 2012). The literacy rate is 97.9 percent while the unemployment rate is 9.8 percent. Most South Koreans live in urban areas because of the excessive migration that took place during t he country’s expansion between 1970 and 1990. As of April 2005, the number of foreign laborers in South Korea was 378,000 and 50% of these were without official authorization. Most foreign workers are from South Asian and Southeast Asian nations in addition to workers from the former Soviet Union countries and Nigeria. About 11,000 expat English teachers also live in South Korea apart from 31,000 US military personnel (Southkoreangovernment, 2012). Cultural Values The cultural dimensions of any nation are essential

Causes of the English Civil War Essay Example for Free

Causes of the English Civil War Essay Charles I came to the throne in 1625 after the death of his father, James I. His reign maintained some similarities with his father’s reign. For instance, both Charles and James had very little money and both of them believed firmly in the Divine Origin of Kingship1. During his reign, many events took place which led to the English Civil War in 1642 and which ended up with the public execution of Charles I. This essay will discuss and deal with the different factors that gave rise to the English Civil War. As was said above, one of the main problems of Charles’ reign was the lack of money and, undoubtedly, this was a good reason for a civil war. Everything started when the Parliament asked Charles to go to war with the Catholics in Spain. Charles did not have the needed money to face this war and so he asked for taxes, the taxes were not enough and the war was impossible. This outraged the MPs but they knew that Charles would then call them back for help. Parliament did not like Charles because they thought he spent money only on his favourites so the King himself would have to find a way to make money. Charles tried several things such as enforcing taxes known as â€Å"ship money†2, selling monopolies and titles; he also created a â€Å"Court of Star Chamber† which was composed by 1 The divine origin of kingship: According to this doctrine, since only God can judge an unjust king, the king can do no wrong. (Definition provided by http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Divine_Right_of_Kings.html) 2 Nonparliamentary tax first levied in medieval times by the English crown on coastal cities and counties for naval defense in time of war. (Definition provided by http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/540944/ship-money) officials of the crown and which main purpose was to fine people heavily so as to raise money. As there was not a jury, this â€Å"court† would obviously fulfill his expectations. Parliament was really angry for the illegal situation, so Charles decided to dissolve it. The reign continued for eleven years without a Parliament. He called a Parliament again just because he needed money. The Covenanters expressed their desire to invade England and Charles did not have the sufficient money to fight them. The Parliament refused to give him money from the taxes and Charles dissolved it again. Eventually, as he was forced to pay a determined sum of money to the Scots, he called a Parliament again. He was destroyed economically. Undoubtedly, Charles’ poor economic manage and his bad decisions were closely related to the outbreak of the civil war. Another crucial cause was religion. These quarrels began when Charles married to Henrietta Maria who was a French Catholic. Having a Catholic as a Queen was not accepted at all by English people, especially by the Puritans. Things went worse when the King made William Laud the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633. The Archbishop modified many things in the Church. For instance, beatifying the Church and bringing back robes for priests, statues and stained-glass windows. Laud also attempted to impose the English Prayer Book3 in Scotland. As Scotland was a Puritan (Presbytarian) country, they rioted against this â€Å"Too Catholic† Prayer Book and a group of Scots, the Covenanter’s, decided to invade England as it was mentioned in the previous paragraph. After putting Laud on trial, the Parliament found him guilty. 3 A book which stated how services should be run (Definition provided by http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/place-london/A622937) Another major cause which led to the civil war was Charles’ personality. It may seem not a fundamental cause comparing it with the above mentioned ones. Nonetheless, his way of thinking, his bad decisions, his conflicts with the MPs, his wife’s influence and his contradictory and inconsistent reign also contributed to the outbreak of the civil war. During Charles’ reign, a distinction between a Short Parliament and a Long Parliament can be made. The Short Parliament was called in 1640 by the King because the Scots rebelled and due to his bad financial situation, he needed to levy a tax to deal with them (only with the Parliament’s consent could he do it). This parliament was summoned after eleven years of dissolution. Even though such dissolution was not constitutional, it was one of the King’s prerogatives. The MPs met the gentry and expressed their feeling of indignation to them. Harbottle Grimston and John Pym led a catalogue of complaints. On May 5th in the same year, Charles dissolved the Parliament again blaming â€Å"the malicious cunning of some few seditious affected men†. Finally, Charles came to an agreement with the Scots of paying them  £850 a day. On the other hand, the Long Parliament was summoned from November 3rd 1640 for thirteen years. Charles needed funds for the daily payment and for a final settlement with the Scots. In this Parliament, 493MPs were elected; most of them were from the County Faction4. Parliament sent both Strafford and Laud to the Tower accusing them of bad influence on the King. Charles tried to calm things down signing Strafford’s death warrant, passing a bill that allowed for Parliament not to be dissolved without its own consent, a bill making ship money illegal and other bills that taken together demolished the framework of prerogative government. 4 MPs who tried to represent the views of the landowners. (Definition provided by http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/place-london/A622937) The Irish rebelled in 1641 because of their King’s death. Definitely, the execution of Strafford had not been a good choice. John Pym issued the Militia Bill and the Grand Remonstrance5 . Subsequently, Charles decided to arrest him and his ringleaders, he tried to arrest five MPs but as they had been previously warned, Charles could not find them. As this was considered a breach of Parliamentary privileges by MPs, it just made things worse between them. And it was on 22nd August when the civil war started. To conclude, it cannot be stated that the most important cause of the English Civil War was unfair taxation because, as was described, there were many factors which created a tense relationship between Parliament and the King. Unfair taxation was a really important cause. However, it was not the only possible factor. Religious, financial and management issues played an important role as well. People who surrounded the King also took an essential part in this big conflict. It also has to be recognized that when Charles came to the throne, things were not in good conditions. Neither his father nor Charles could manage their reigns properly. A civil war could not have been avoided unless Charles would have changed his mind and way of thinking but as he was born with a belief in the Divine Origin of Kingship and did not have much knowledge about kingships, it would have been very difficult to achieve. 5 It listed all the things Charles had done wrong in his reign, suggested less power for bishops, and said that Parliament should have power over the Church and the appointment of Royal ministers. (Definition provided by http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/place-london/A622937)

Immediate and Late Effect of Cryotherapy on Balance

Immediate and Late Effect of Cryotherapy on Balance immediate and late effect of cryotherapy on balance IN HEALTHY SUBJECTs Abstract Background: cryotherapy application is commonly used as a physical therapy tools with many known advantage, however several research have reported decrease in subject balance which affect quality of movement following cryotherapy application, therefore the purpose of study to investigate the immediate and late effect of cryotherapy on ankle dominant joint on static balance and test the difference in static balance change between both sexes. Methods: thirty normal subjects, Subjects had their static balance tested during two conditions: (1) an experimental condition where the subject received the cryotherapy application by using cooled gel pack to the dominant ankle joint for 15 minutes immediately before static balance testing and (2) a control condition finished at room temperature. The order of testing condition was randomized by using a coin flip. Biodex balance system was used to measure static balance. Result: analysis of data using ANOVA and unpaired test ,show insignificantly statistically effect in all aspect of static balance within female group with p value of overall stability index =0.669,Anterior/posterior stability index =0.196 and medial/lateral stability index =0.989,insignificantly statistically effect in all aspect of static balance within male group with p value of overall stability index =0.382,Anterior/posterior stability index =0.552 and Medial/lateral stability index =0.46 and insignificant statistically difference between male and female in all aspect of static balance. Conclusion: The result of current study suggest that fifteen minutes of cold gel pack on ankle dominant extremity have no effect on static balance on both sexes . Key words: static balance, cryotherapy Introduction: cryotherapy therapy is a popular non-pharmacological intervention, The term cryotherapy was used in year 1908 by A.W. Pusey to describe the treatment of skin injuries with low temperatures[1,2] , The primary aim of cryotherapy is the removal of heat energy from the site of injury, in order to facilitate a therapeutic effect [3] by produces a number of physiological effects to the human body including a reduction in blood flow, edema, hemorrhage[4], cellular metabolic rate, hypoxia, enzymatic activity and tissue damage[5]. Cryotherapy has also been demonstrated to significantly increase the pain threshold and pain tolerance by reducing nerve conduction velocity and muscle spasm [6]. Cryotherapy often used in athletic and rehabilitation cases to manage injury during the immediate and rehabilitative phases [7]. Cryotherapy treats the muscle damage caused by High-intensity exercise including predominantly eccentric activity, unaccustomed activity, and exercise of long duration and/or high intensity which has been shown to induce an inflammatory response [8]. In spite of the characterized treatment advantage of cryotherapy, there are reduction in subjects performance variables are likely to occur after returning to normal movement immediately after cryotherapy application,[9]especially , decrease speed of running, muscle strength speed and agility measures have been noted after cryotherapy application over many anatomical areas and studies[10,11]. The ability to conserve postural control or balance is important for the correct carrying out of all daily activity ranging from standing and walking to sitting and standing from a chair [12]. Possessing the ability to conserve several positions, to react automatically to voluntary movements of the body, and to react to external disturbance represents a postural control domain needed in daily life [13]. The maintenance of balance is important in the prevention of injuries and this ability depends on proprioceptive input from capsuloligamentous and musculotendinous mechanoreceptors in combining with vestibular and visual input to the central nervous system (CNS)[14,15] . This input used in feedback and feed-forward loops to provide the proper neuromuscular response [16-17]. Variations in any of these inputs would disturb balance and increase the risk of injury [18]. There is also growing awareness that rehabilitation using cryotherapy has deleterious effects on balance, or return patients to their previous functional levels [19, 20].Quality of movement is important as strength of movement, and the key of movement quality is balance [21]. Even if a patient has regained full strength and range of motion, if they still have poor balance and proprioception, they are at risk for re-injury. During the management of acute distortion, cryotherapy is commended after the injury and in rehabilitation, ice application is supposed to promote the beginning of active exercise and its progression [7]. In practice it can happen that sportsmen are sent back to exercising or competition immediately after cryotherapy. Although the question is controversially discussed, if physical activities after ice application can be re-established without risk or increase liability to injury. This study takes up the problems if cryotherapy application at the ankle disrupts static balance so that an increased risk of injury could result and the study also clarify the immediate and late effect and test the difference in static balance between both sex. Methodology The current study was conducted at biomechanics laboratory at faculty of physical therapy, modern university, in the period from December 2015 to April 2016 to investigate the immediate and late effect of cryotherapy application on dominant ankle joint on static standing balance and test the difference in static balance between both sexes. Design of study Cross over (single repeated measurements) design used in this study to determine the immediate and late effect of cryotherapy application on dominant ankle joint on static standing balance and test the difference in the static standing balance between both sexes. Subjects A sample of thirty healthy normal subjects (fifteen male and fifteen female), subjects were recruited using publically distributed posters and by online social media. Subjects had their static balance examined during two situations: (1) an experimental situation where the subject received the cryotherapy application by using cooled gel pack to the dominant ankle joint for fifteen minutes immediately before static balance testing and (2) a control situation finished at room temperature. The order of examining situation was randomized by using a coin flip. Participant finished the control situation first immediately finished the experimental situation following assessment. Participants randomized to the cryotherapy situation first had the control session arranged at a separate time to confirm no lingering effects remain from the cryotherapy procedures. Subjects participate in the current study after approval of ethical committee of faculty of physical therapy, Cairo University with number P.T.REC/012/001035 and all subjects provided written informed consent. Subjects were included if their age range from 18 to 40 years [22] free from musculoskeletal diseases and neurological diseases affecting the lower limb. Excluded if had musculoskeletal disorders in lower limb, had infected skin diseases and loss of sensation, had Metabolic or vascular disease with neurological component such as diabetes, had previous ankle operation and had recent injury of ankle joint. Instrumentation Measurement instrumentation The device used in this study (Biodex Medical Systems Inc., Shirley, New York, USA) was a foot platform (circular in shape with a diameter of 21.5΄, which permits up to 20 ° tilting from horizontal in all directions), support rails that were adjustable from 25΄ to 36.5΄ above the platform, and could be swung away if desired, a display module whose height was adjustable from 53΄ to 68΄ above the platform and angle was adjustable from vertical back to 45 °, with a display viewing area of 24.8 ÃÆ'- 18.4 cm and a printer. This testing machine has 12 dynamic levels plus locked for static measurements [23]. Stability indexesthe stability index represents the variance of platform displacement in degrees from level. An increase in number indicate considerable motion, which indicates a problem with balance [24] . The participants ability to control the platforms angle of tilt was measured by the system and noted as a stability index. The data on the balance of the tested participants were supplied to the system. These data included anteroposterior stability index (APSI), mediolateral stability index (MLSI), and overall stability index (OSI). The smaller the amount of sway, the lower the numerical value of these indexes [24]. OSI: represented the variance of foot platform displacement in degrees, from level, in all motions during the test. A high number was indicative of considerable movement during this test. APSI: represented the variance of foot platform displacement, in degrees, from level, for motion in the sagittal plane. MLSI: represented the variance of foot platform displacement, in degrees from level, for motion in the frontal plane [24] . Therapeutic instrumentation: Reusable cold gel pack 25.4 x 48.1 cm. 5 +/- degree C [25] was frozen and wrapped with a towel and supported with elastic strap around the ankle joint of dominant lower extremity. Procedure Each participant received a verbal explanation about the test steps. When the system was on, the first displayed screen was the main menu. It allowed us to choose entering testing, training, or system utilities. Choosing to enter testing showed the next screen, which allowed determination of the test parameters such as test duration and the stability level chosen. The weight and height of the participant were recorded and the next screen was used for the centering process. The next screen was the stability test screen, where the start key was pressed to lock or unlock the platform and begin the test. A cursor appeared during the test tracing the movement of the platform while the clock counted till the time of the test ends. The next screen showed a menu. The examiner chooses the numeric report option on this screen to allow the participants numeric screen appear. Pressing start while on this screen initiates printing of the report, which includes the numeric values of the APSI, MLSI , and OSI (operation and service manual). Step 1: balance assessmentthe participants were tested without footwear and asked to perform two test trials before a specific test condition for the purpose of instrument familiarity before data collection. Then, the participant was first asked to assume the test position (standing on dominant foot) with arms held at the sides, eye closed and to attempt to control his/her balance as much as possible. Each participant was asked to center him/herself on the foot platform before starting the test. The test parameters introduced into the device were: Participants age , weight and height Stability level: all participants were tested on stability level 0 for 15 s. Then, the start key was pressed in the control panel (which took 5 s) with an auditory alarm just before the beginning of the test. The participant was instructed that the test was started just after the alarm. Each participant was instructed to maintain his/her balance for the period of the test. Three trials were performing prior to the measurement. There was report obtained at the end of each test include information on OSI, APSI, and MLSI. Step 2: cryotherapy application Reusable cold gel pack 25.4 x 48.1 cm. 5 +/- degree C was employed as the cryotherapy modality in this study. Application duration will be 15 minutes. Wrapping of pack by towel will applied all around ankle joint of domain extremity with towel in between .Two elastic straps will used to secure the ice pack. The subject will asked to relax during cryotherapy application to limit activity of muscle and lessen any change in temperature of tissue.Step 3: balance reassessmentthe participant was asked to repeat the same balance testing procedures directly after cryotherapy application, 30 minutes later and 60 minutes later to measure post OSI, MLSI, and APSI. Statistical analysis All statistical analysis were carried out by using SPSS,version 23 for windows; SPSS Inc., Chicago,Illinois,USA.the normality of data distribution was tested through the Shapiro-wilk test.Descriptive data for participants, characteristics was calculated as the mean, standard deviation and range minimum maximum of measured variables, ANOVA tests used to compare between pretest and posttest. Unpaired test used to compare between male and female. Level of significant will set at Results: General characteristics of the subjects: In this study, thirty subjects were assigned randomly, the range of the ages is between 18 to 40 years overall. There was no statistically significant differences between the groups in their ages as the p-value are 0.412. The range of the weight is between 50 to 105 kg. There was no statistically significant differences between the groups in their weight as the p-value are 0.214. The range of the Height is between 156 to 195 cm. There was no statistically significant differences between the groups in their weight as the p-value are 0.366. Table (1): Demographics Distribution Items Male Female Comparison Significant Mean ±SD Mean ±SD T-value P-value Age (years) 26.4  ± 6.08 25.533  ± 5.41 0.412 0.682 No Significant Weight (Kg) 70.89  ± 14.57 77.2  ± 5.41 -1.270 0.214 No Significant Height (cm) 165.27  ± 4.57 166.66  ± 6.41 -0.411 0.366 No Significant Figure. (1): Demographics Distribution As for the gender distribution, 15 subjects (50%) were male and 15 subjects (50%) were females. In addition, 26 subjects (86.7%) had their dominant right leg tested, and 4 subjects (13.3%) had their dominant left leg tested. Static Balance Pre-test The results are shown using the following table (2) and illustrated in figure (2). 1) Overall Stability Index Independent t-test was used to show difference between pretest for females and males. The female mean value of overall stability index (3.47à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.42) was significantly different from (5.04à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±2.31) with t test = -2.242 and p value = 0.033*. 2) A/P Stability Index Independent t-test was used to show difference between pretest for females and males. The female mean value of A/P Stability index (2.41 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 0.85) was significantly different from (3.393à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.65) with t test = -2.157 and p value = 0.043. 3) M/L Stability Index Independent t-test was used to show difference between pretest for females and males. The female mean value of M/L Stability index (2.01 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.08) was insignificantly different from (2.99à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.72) with t test = -1.887 and p value = 0.072. Table (2): The pre-test results for the Stability Indices Static Stability Index Overall Stability Index A/P Stability Index M/L Stability Index Pre-test for Females 3.67à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.41 2.407à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±0.85 2.01à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.08 Pre-test for Males 5.04à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±2.3 3.39à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.65 2.99à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.72 Independent t-value p value -2.492 0.033* Significant -2.157 0.045* Significant -1.884 0.072 Insignificant Data are expressed as mean  ± SD. P> 0.05= insignificant. *P Figure (2): The pre-test results for the Stability Indices Static B) Within Group (Females) The results are shown using the following table (3) and illustrated in figure (3).ANOVA F-test was used to show difference between pre and post-test in the stability indices. Overall Stability Index: The mean value was pretest (3.47à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.42) when compared with its corresponding no significant difference after assessment immediately (3.78à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.868), after 30 minutes (3.41 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 2.27), and after 60 minutes (4.29 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 2.86) with f test = 0.521 and p value = 0.66. A/P Stability Index: The mean value was pretest (2.41 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 0.85) when compared with its corresponding no significant difference after assessment immediately (2.47 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.52), after 30 minutes (2.14 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.27), and after 60 minutes (3.27 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.43) with f test = 1.616 and p value = 0.196. M/L Stability Index: The mean value was pretest (2.01 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.08) when compared with its corresponding no significant difference after assessment immediately (2.2 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.07), after 30 minutes (2.12 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.84), and after 60 minutes (2.13 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.98) with f test = 0.04 and p value = 0.989. Table (3): The mean values and S.D of Stability Indices before starting and after the test for Females Static Data of evaluations Overall Stability Index A/P Stability Index M/L Stability Index Pre-test 3.47 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.42 2.41 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±0.85 2.01à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.08 Post-Immediate 3.73 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.868 2.47à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.52 2.2à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.07 Post-30 minutes 3.41 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 2.27 2.14à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.27 2.12à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.84 Post-60 minutes 4.29 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 2.86 3.27à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.43 2.13à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.98 F-value ANOVA 0.521 1.616 0.04 p value 0.669 Insignificant Difference 0.196 Insignificant Difference 0.989 Insignificant Difference Data are expressed as mean  ± SD. P> 0.05= insignificant. *P Figure (3): The mean values and S.D of Stability Indices before starting and after the test for Females Static D) Within groups (Males) The results are shown using the following table (4) and illustrated in figure (4). ANOVA F-test was used to show the difference between post-test in the stability indices. Overall Stability Index: The mean value was pretest (5.04à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±2.3) when compared with its corresponding no significant difference after assessment immediately (5.01à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.765), after 30 minutes (4.42à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±2.22), and after 60 minutes (3.95à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.56) with f test = 1.039and p value = 0.382. A/P Stability Index: The mean value was pretest (3.39à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.69) when compared with its corresponding no significant difference after assessment immediately (3.4à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.42), after 30 minutes (3.11à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.78), and after 60 minutes (2.67à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.416) with f test = 0.707and p value = 0.525. M/L Stability Index: The mean value was pretest (2.99à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.72) when compared with its corresponding no significant difference after assessment immediately (3.02à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.28), after 30 minutes (2.52à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.55), and after 60 minutes (2.33à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.02) with f test = 0.874and p value = 0.46. Table (4): The mean values and S.D of Stability Indices before starting and after the test for Males Static Data of evaluations Overall Stability Index A/P Stability Index M/L Stability Index Pre-test 5.04à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±2.31 3.39à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.65 2.99à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.72 Post-Immediate 5.01à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.765 3.4à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.42 3.02à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.28 Post-30 minutes 4.42à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 2.229 3.11à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.78 2.52à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.55 Post-60 minutes 3.95à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±1.56 2.67à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.42 2.33à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 1.02 F-value ANOVA 1.039 0.707 0.874 p value 0.382 Insignificant Difference 0.552 Insignificant Difference 0.46 Insignificant Difference Data are expressed as mean  ± SD. P> 0.05= insignificant. * P Figure (4): The mean values and S.D of Stability Indices before starting and after the test for Males Static D) Post test results Static The results are shown using the following table (5) and illustrated in figure (5). Independent t-test was used to show difference between post-test in the stability indices. 1) Overall Stability Index Independent t-test was used to show difference between immediately post-test for females and males. The female mean value of overall stability index (3.73  ± 1.868) was insignificantly different from (5.01  ± 1.765) with t test = -1.913and p value = 0.063. Independent t-test was used to show difference between 30 minutes post-test for females and males. The female mean value of overall stability index (3.41  ± 2.27) was insignificantly different from (4.42  ± 2.229) with t test = -1.227and p value = 0.23. Independent t-test was used to show difference between 60 minutes post-test for females and males. The female mean value of overall stability index (4.29  ± 2.86) was insignificantly different from (3.95  ± 1.56) with t test = 0.415 and p value = 0.682. Stability Index Immediate 30 Minutes 60 Minutes Overall Stability Index Post-test for Females 3.73  ± 1.868 3.41  ± 2.27 4.29  ± 2.86 Post-test for Males 5.01  ± 1.765 4.42  ± 2.229 3.95  ± 1.56 Independent t-value p value -1.913 0.063 Insignificant -1.227 0.23 Insignificant 0.415 0.682 Insignificant Table (5.a): The mean values and S.D of Overall Stability Index post-test for both Females and Males-Static Data are expressed as mean  ± SD. P> 0.05= insignificant. * P Figure (5.a): The mean values and S.D of Overall Stability Index post-test for both Females and Males-Static 2) A/P Stability Index Independent t-test was used to show difference between immediate post-test for females and males. The female mean value of A/P Stability index (2.47  ± 1.52) was insignificantly different from (3.4  ± 1.42) with t test = -1.699and p value = 0.1. Independent t-test was used to show difference between 30 minutes post-test for females and males. The female mean value of A/P stability index (2.14  ±1.27) was insignificantly different from (3.11  ± 1.78) with t test = -1.723and p value = 0.096. A/P Stability Index Immediate 30 Minutes 60 Minutes A/P Stability Index Post-test for Females 2.47  ± 1.52 2.14  ± 1.27 3.27  ± 1.43 Post-test for Males 3.4  ±1.42 3.11  ± 1.78 2.67  ± 1.42 Independent t-value p value -1.699 0.1 Insignificant -1.723 0.096 Insignificant -0.925 0.363 Insignificant Independent t-test was used to show difference between 60 Minutes post-test for females and males. The female mean value of A/P stability index (3.27  ± 1.43) was insignificantly different from (2.67  ± 1.42) with t test = -0.925 and p value = 0.363. Table (5.b): The mean values and S.D of A/P Stability Index post-test for both Females and Males-Static Data are expressed as mean  ± SD. P> 0.05= insignificant. * P Figure (5.b): The mean values and S.D of A/P Stability Index post-test for both Females and Males-Static 3) M/L Stability Index Independent t-test was used to show difference between immediate post-test for females and males. The female mean value of M/L Stability index (2.2 ±1.07) was insignificantly different from (3.02  ± 1.28) with t test = -1.898and p value = 0.068. Independent t-test was used to show difference between 30 Minutes post-test for females and males. The female mean value of M/L stability index (2.12  ± 1.84) was insignificantly different from (2.52  ± 1.55) with t test = -0.656and p value = 0.518. Independent t-test was used to show difference between 60 Minutes post-test for females and males. The female mean value of M/L stability index (2.13  ± 1.98) was insignificantly different from (2.33  ± 1.02) with t test =0.097and p value = 0.729. Table (5.c): The mean values and S.D of M/L Stability Index post-test for both Females and Males-Static M/L Stability Index Immediate 30 Minutes 60 Minutes M/L Stability Index Post-test for Females 2.2  ± 1.07 2.12  ± 1.84 2.13  ±1.98 Post-test for Males 3.02  ± 1.28 2.52  ± 1.55 2.33  ± 1.02 Independent t-value p value -1.898 0.068 Insignificant -0.656 0.518 Insignificant 0.097 0.729 Insignificant Data are expressed as mean  ± SD. P> 0.05= insignificant. * P Figure (5.c): The mean values and S.D of M/L Stability Index post-test for both Females and Males-Static Discussion: The purposes of the study were To determine the immediate and late effect of cryotherapy on the dominant ankle joint on static balance and To determine the difference in static balance changes between both sexes. Our result revealed that the females have significant difference in static balance than male when measured before application of cold gel pack to ankle dominant extremity with p value of overall stability index = 0.033 , p value of A/P stability index=0.043 and not for ML stability index with p value of =0.072. Our result revealed that after using cold gel pack to ankle dominant extremity for 15 minutes has no statistically significant difference on all aspect of static balance in female group. In over stability index there was no statistically significant difference after assessment immediately, after 30 minutes and after 60 minutes with p value =0.66. In over A/P stability index there was no statistically significant difference after assessment immediately, after 30 minutes and after 60 minutes with p value =0.196. and In over M/L stability index there was no statistically significant difference after assessment immediately,

Christmas Is A Good Holiday For Many Reasons :: essays research papers

Christmas Is A Good Holiday For Many Reasons   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Christmas is a good holiday for many reasons. There are reasons that exist that make Christmas a bad holiday, but for the most part it is a wonderful time of year. Millions of people around the world will agree that Christmas is one of the most fun and exciting holidays. Christmas is a good holiday because students get a vacation from school, people get to exchange gifts with friends and family, and people get to spend time with their families. Those three reasons, among others, help to make Christmas one of the best holidays.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First of all, Christmas is a good holiday because students get a vacation from school. While not in school, students have no homework. That really helps to make the holidays more enjoyable. With no school, students have no reason to get up early so they can stay out late and sleep late in the morning. When Christmas comes around, it means that the school year is half over. If a student has done well the first semester, he or she is sure to survive the second semester.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Next, people get to exchange gifts with friends and family. Exchanging gifts is always fun because people receive new things. Who couldn't enjoy something that was given to them free. Also, people get to give gifts to their friends and family. Giving gifts always gives people that warm happy feeling inside. The most enjoyable part is seeing the gifts that people gave being opened by the people receiving them. That always puts a smile on peoples faces.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Last but not least, people get to spend time with family. Some of the family may not have been seen in a long time so it puts everyone in a good mood to finally see them. Being with family is fun and helps make the holidays more enjoyable. One thing that many families may find interesting is sharing stories.

Idioms Denoting Parts of Body Essay

1. Introduction It is common knowledge that one of the most important functions of language is to name the world or express human thoughts through a system of concepts. They exist in association in language and make up a giant network with many interconnection and association among the various subparts. A good example of this interconnection involves metaphor. Metaphor is used in the literary or poetic language. It is also widely used in every day conversational language. It is obvious that metaphor is utilized to express ideas sensibly and vividly as it has great expressive power. It is capable of conveying more of the human feeling, emotion or attitude toward what is said rather than the non-metaphorical or direct way of expression. The more developed the society is, the more necessary the need of communication becomes; especially in the process of globalization, the communication has spread beyond the boundary of a country. Together with the development of the society in the era of integration, language has been clearly recognized as a very important tool in communication with many purposes. Language can be used to show one’s feeling, attitude, and evaluation. And through communicating, reading newspapers etc., I realize that people often use words, phrases denoting human body to show their feeling, emotion†¦ In our daily life, we can easily recognize words denoting our body parts used plentifully, not only individual words but also word combinations containing more than one human body part. Regarding to word groups denoting human body parts, their meanings are not the combination of each word’s meaning only, in some cases, their meanings are quite different from the original meaning. Learning of idioms is important, especially for the foreigner learners. Idioms correspond to a valuable vein in English language, so they need for explanation. Idioms are fixed expressions whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of its components. Learners of English must be aware that the meaning cannot be taken as a combination of words which the idiom consist of. Also behaviour of idioms in sentences is different. One cannot understand literally the meaning of an idiom. Sometimes it seems that it has no sense or it is illogical. Idioms cannot be changed; especially one cannot use related words when the idiom is concerned. Many of them cannot be used in passive form. The structure of idioms is extraordinary. That is why learners of English must know that the most important thing is not learning idioms by rote, but learning how to use them. If speaker of English knows a lot of idioms and he can use them in a right context, he will be able to communicate more easily. Idiomatic expressions are phrases which use language in a non-literal way. This is why interpretation of idioms is very hard. Idioms are group of words, phrases that meaning cannot be concluded from the individual words. Every idiom has a deeper, metaphorical meaning. Idioms are very important in life because it is impossible to speak, read, write and listen to English without knowing idiomatic expressions. Native speakers of English feel more comfortable using idiomatic phrases; however, non-native speakers can be frustrated because the true meaning of an idiom is not always clear. One should remember that idioms can be used when every speaker master a language completely. Nowadays, idioms are essential elements that enrich the language. However, one should remember that speech which is overloaded with idioms loses its originality. On the other hand, lack of idioms make that oral or written speech loses much in its expressiveness. A large number of phrases and sentences in the English language are related to body parts. Some of them are descriptive while others, elusive. Their origins are dated from Biblical times to the recent days. Each generation adds new idiomatic expressions which are connected with their culture. The meaning of idiomatic expressions is indefinable. They show that metaphors are very important in our lives and that we do not look at things in the way they are in reality, but rather we perceive them through our understanding and our experience of the world. The present thesis is an attempt at an analysis of English idioms with a body component. Its goal is to study and present the nature of idioms, their connection with culture and context. It is common knowledge that one of the most important   functions of language is to name the world or express human thoughts through a system of concepts. They exist in association in language and make up a giant network with many interconnection and association among the various subparts. A good example of this interconnection involves metaphor. Metaphor is used in the literary or poetic language. It is also widely used in every day conversational language. It is obvious that metaphor is utilized to express ideas sensibly and vividly as it has great expressive power. It is capable of conveying more of the human feeling, emotion or attitude toward what is said rather than the non-metaphorical or direct way of expression. Achilles’ heel= the only vulnerable spot in a person or thing that is otherwise strong; a serious or fatal weakness/ fault After one’s own heart = to like someone because of similar interests An eye for an eye (and a tooth for a tooth)= retaliation/ retribution in kind, a punishment that is as cruel as the crime An eye opener = a surprise; a startling or enlightening experience Armed to the teeth = heavily armed Behind one’s back = when one is not present Blue blood = having the qualities of being of noble birth Can’t put one’s finger on = can’t locate immediately, can’t find the answer Can’t see beyond the end of one’s nose = limited vision concerning decisions of the future Crocodile tears = false tears, pretended grief Face to face/ eyeball-to-eyeball = confronting each other Foul mouth = a user of profanity Hand in hand= in close association Hands are tied = restrained from acting Heart-to-heart = intimate speaking freely and seriously about a private subject I could have bitten my tongue off= sorry you said something In one ear and out the other = does not heed or pay attention It’s in your hands = it is your responsibility On the tip of one’s tongue= at the point of telling or recalling One foot in the grave = old and decrepit Over one’s dead body= against one’s strong opposition Right-hand man= chief assistant To (not) lift a finger= not to help in the slightest degree To be all ears = to listen attentively To be loose–tongued = to talk too much To be up to one’s ears = immersed in, caught in To break someone’s heart = cause great sorrow, disappoint someone To breathe down someone’s neck = to follow someone closely in pursuit, the action of a superior who is looking for something wrong or watching someone very closely To bury one’s head in the sand = to refuse to accept facts To catch one’s breath = to rest to regain normal breathing To cry on someone’s shoulder = to go to someone to talk to about a problem To foam/ froth at the mouth= to be very angry To force one’s hand = make one reveal his plans To get one’s hands on= obtain To get out of hand= become uncontrollable To get through one’s head= to understand or believe To give one’s right arm = make a big sacrifice; give something of great value To give someone a hand= help, assistance To go to one’s head= cause dizziness To have a big mouth= to talk too much To have a sharp tongue= harsh or sarcastic in speech To have an eagle eye= to have an excellent eyesight 1.1 Aim Idiomatic Phrases For the first time the term ‘phraseology’ appeared in 16th century and it meant ‘style’ or ‘vocabulary’. In 18th century it got terminological meaning such as ‘a group of word units’. At the same time in most of European languages ‘phraseology’ meant ‘empty words’. New linguistic branch ‘phraseology’ developed in 20th century, mostly in East Europe. The forerunner of phraseology was Charles. Bally, Swiss linguist. He used the term phraseology when he wrote about different types of word-groups which differ in degree of stability from free word-groups to phraseological units. The study on phraseology was developed by Russian linguists A.A. Shakhmotov and A.D. Polivanov. M. Tarasevitch (1991:448) claims that â€Å"[†¦] linguists became aware of the existence in the language of special larger-than-words units: word-groups consisting of two or more words whose combination is integrated as a un it with a specialized meaning of the whole [†¦]. Russian linguists made an attempt to study various word-groups on a scientific basis. They pointed out the need to establish a new branch of linguistics that would study unusual feature of word-groups. In linguistics, ‘phraseology’ is a term used for describing the context in which a word is used. The term also describes various structural and semantic types of phrases characterized by different degrees of idiomacity in given language. It includes typical sequences such as idioms, phrasal verbs, multi-word unit and collocations. â€Å" Phraseology – the words and phrases used in particular profession or activity or a particular way of putting words together to express something† (Macmillan English Dictionary 2007:1119) Phraseology studies compound meaning of two or more words e.g. like a knife through butter. The meaning of the phrase is different from the words used alone. Phraseology studies why such meanings come in everyday use, and what possibly are the laws governing these word combinations. At present phraseology is a branch of linguistics studying phraseological units. According to M. Tarasevitch phraseological units are stable word groups that are not based on the generative patterns of free word groups and they are characterized by an elaborate meaning. Tarasevitch claims that phraseological unit should have: * Stability of use; * Structural separateness; * Complexity of meaning and * Word-groups are not built on the generative pattern of free word-groups. Stability of use means that phraseological units are language units which are members of a language community. Phraseology is connected with culture and speech community. Structural separateness helps to distinguish praseological units from compound words. Complexity of meaning signifies the non-compositionality of phraseological units, which mean that the meaning of the whole phrase is different from the sum of literal meanings of the words. Each unit is constituted according to its own unique rule, which cannot be predicted. One of three groups of phraseological units is idioms. Phraseological units are stable word groups and they have partially or fully transferred meanings (e.g. kick the bucket). They are lexicalized word group in common use. What is an idiom? â€Å"A group of words whose meaning is different from the meanings of the individual words† (Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary 2000:672) â€Å"An expression established in the usage of a language that is peculiar to itself either in grammatical construction or in having a meaning that cannot be derived as a whole from the conjoined meanings of its elements† (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary 1993:1123) â€Å"[†¦] an idiom is a lexicalized, reproducible word group in common use, which has the syntactic stability, and may carry connotations, but whose meaning cannot be derived from the meanings of its constituents† (Cowie 2001:125) The word ‘idiom’ comes from the Greek root idio, meaning a unique signature. An idiom is an expression, a phrase or a combination of words that has a meaning that is different from a meaning of the individual words. Each language contains expressions which make no sense when they are translated literally into another language. Sometimes idiom can have literal meaning in some situation and different idiomatic meaning in another situation. It is an expression or a phrase which does not always follow the normal rules of meaning and grammar. If somebody (especially a foreigner or a person outside a given culture) does not know that some words convey a meaning that is unrelated to the individual meaning of those words, he may does not understand what someone is saying. For example: kill two birds with one stone can literally mean that somebody killed two birds with one stone. But the idiom has totally different meaning: one resolves two difficulties or matters with a one single action. Many idioms are similar to expressions in other languages, can be easy to understand and its meaning is usually obvious. For instance, black ship of the family in Poland can be easily understood because there is an identical idiom and it can be easily translated. Other idioms come from older phrases which have changed their meaning over time, for example, kick the bucket originally referred to suicide victims standing on inverted buckets, they kick them away and in this way hang themselves, but now it means simply to die. Shelley (1995) suggests that some idioms are slang. â€Å"Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English† (Galperin 1971:96). Galperin cited a definition of slang of â€Å"Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language†: â€Å"1. Originally, the specialized vocabulary and idioms of criminals tramps, etc. The purpose of which was to disguise from outsiders the meaning of what was said; now usually called cant. 2. The specialized vocabulary and idioms of those in the same work, way of life, etc.; now usually called shoptalk, argot, jargon. â€Å" (Galperin 1971:96). According to Thomas (1995) idioms are known as clichà ©s. Clichà ©s are expressions that have been used over and over again. They are overused and common expressions. Idioms are perceived as a very interesting part of the language because they are different from simple words and phrases. They make language life and rich because they take existing words and combine them with a new sense and create totally new expressions. â€Å"[†¦] language is a living thing [†¦]. Living things grow and change, so does language.† (Seidl and McMordie 1988:11) English language being flexible enriches its vocabulary with the words invented by language speakers, which makes English more colourful with new idiomatic expressions. Since idioms have unpredictable meaning, structure and collocations, they are linguistic curiosities. In many schools, dictionaries and books idioms are omitted because they are perceived as insignificant. They are rarely used in classrooms. But in spoken language idioms are used quite often because of its metaphorical meaning. According to Seidl and McMordie (1988) the attitude to language is still changing. It is observed in some parts of grammar (case, number and tense), and in style. Some words which were deemed as slang in the past now are considered informal or colloquial. Idioms are not any longer colloquial expressions. They appear in formal style, in poetry and in the language of the Bible. Idioms and culture â€Å"By culture we understand the ability of members of speech community to orientate themselves with respect to social, moral, political and so on values in their empirical and mental experience. Cultural categories [†¦] are conceptualized in the subconscious knowledge of standards, stereotypes, mythologies, rituals, general habits and other cultural patterns†. (Cowie 2001:57) The term idiom refers to a group of words which are usually confusing to people who are not familiar with the language. Nevertheless, many phrases or expressions from natural language are in fact idioms or have idiomatic origin and they have been assimilated into the language. Idioms are often colloquial metaphors. They often combine in their semantics more than one type of cultural information. It means that they require some foundational knowledge, information and experience which are used only within a culture where groups must have common reference. As cultures are localized around some area, idioms are not useful for communication outside of that local context. But there are some idioms that can be more universally used than others, they can be easily translated and their metaphorical meaning can be more easily deduced. Those common idioms have deep roots in many languages, they can be translated in other languages and tend to become international. Idioms are an essential part of English style language study. One cannot say that he know English history, culture and society without understanding the meaning and the roots of English idioms. Each generation has added its new non-literal expressions which are defined by the values, beliefs, traditions, customs and events of the times. If you master idioms you will be on your path to better understanding English culture, customs, society and lifestyle of English people. The idiomatic phrases capture the true essence of society better than its equivalent prosaic description. When one uses idioms among English friends and even business associates, he can create emotional bands that bring him closer to their culture. Mastery of idioms can lead to better understanding of people. Often background information on the origin or popular usage of idioms provides important insight into culture. Different aspects of an idiom Seidl and McMordie (1988) said that idioms are not only colloquial expressions, but they also appear in formal style and in poetry. Idioms often occur in journalism, radio and magazines to make information, stories and articles more interesting. However, idioms are often connected with informal language. The construction of an idiom is strict and for one it can be odd (e.g. not by a long chalk). Sometimes the construction seems to be illogical (e.g. for two pins). This is why learning idioms is not only very difficult task but also very exciting and intriguing. People who do not know certain idioms cannot easily understand the others. Such a phrase would not make sense and one cannot deduce what is actual meaning of the expression. These features causes that idioms have to be learnt as a whole expressions without any changes. Sometimes idioms have alternative forms without any change in their meaning (e.g. to drop a brick and put one’s foot in it mean to say something tactlessly or blue-eyed boy and golden boy – a favoured person). In some cases several verbs can be used in one idiom and the meaning is the same, but sometimes there are slight changes in meaning connected with the verb which it substitutes (e.g. keep/bear someone in mind, come/get to/reach the point). An idiom is natural to native speakers of the language and only people who are possess English very good can use idiomatic expressions in their speech. Idioms have different structures and combinations. They can be short or long, they contain various parts of speech and they are unpredictable, but sometimes one may guess meaning from the context, when the idiom is used in a particular situation. Foreigners know the meaning of the idiom when it is related to the mother tongue of the speaker (e.g. be in seven heaven in Polish its mean być w sià ³dmym niebie). Some idioms are so difficult that one cannot guess the meaning from the context correctly. It is difficult to learn them. Idioms can change their meaning during period of time or simple phrase can transform into idiom and get deeper meaning as it was with kick the bucket. Learners of foreign language have to learn idioms as a single item with their meaning. It is essential to master the rules of their use in sentences. They are strict in their structure and they do not allow the word order to change. A learner must know how to use an idiom in the correct way. Idioms are not separate part of language, but they are very important part of lexicon. Languages contain a large number of idioms and sometimes native speakers use them in the unconscious way. There are many problems with idioms. The main problem is that it is not usually possible to translate them literally. There are exceptions, for instance, take the bull by the horns can be translated literally into Polish as wziąć byka za rogi, which has the same meaning. Mostly, the use of normal rules in order to translate idioms will result in illogical phrases. Idioms have to be treated as single units in translation. There are idioms which are ‘frozen’. It means that an idiom appears in the same form and in the same order (e.g. for good – ‘forever’). But, there is problem with idioms which change the form of the verb, which varies according to tense, person and number. For example, kick the bucket (‘to die’) one gets she kicks/kicked/will kick the bucket. Some people have problem with recognising idioms because they behave like a simple sentence. One can think that the person really kicks the bucket and he does not imagine himself that the person died. The interpretation of idioms for one can be surprising. It is better to recognise idioms which have ‘frozen forms’. Idioms pragmatics and context â€Å"Pragmatics – the study of the way in which language is used to express what somebody really means in particular situations, especially when the actual words used may appear to mean something different.† (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English 2000:1031). Pragmatics is involved with the comprehension process. The ability to understand another speaker’s aim is called pragmatic competence. It is a linguistic study of the way in which people use language to achieve different goals. Suppose a person wanted to ask someone else to reveal a secret. These could be achieved in the different ways. The person could simply say ‘do not tell a secret, please’ which is direct and with clear meaning. Alternatively the person could say ‘do not spill the beans’, which implies a similar meaning but is indirect and therefore requires pragmatic competence. Idioms play very important role in those studies. Because idioms have general meaning they are rather used to express attitude then give specific information. They are used to express approval or disapproval and admiration or criticism. According to Collins Coubild Dictionary of Idioms (1995) idioms sometimes have connotations and pragmatic meaning which are not always obvious to people who do not know the meaning and then the meaning of the expression can be missed. It may happen that somebody can use an idiom and do not realize that it can be interpreted as critical or disapproving. It can cause wrong reaction of the person they are talking to. Pragmatics is one of the most challenging aspects for language learners to comprehend, and can be learned by experience. The interpretation of what the speaker wanted to say using particular words is often influenced by factors such as listener’s assumption or the context. In pragmatics two contexts can be distinguished: linguistic context (is the set of words that surround the lexical item) and physical context (is the location of given words, the situation in which the word is used, as well as timing, all of them lead to proper understanding of the words). 1.2. Practical Value When we use idioms? According to Seild and McMordie (1988) one should know in which situations it is correct to use idiom and weather an idiom can be used in a formal or an informal situation. English native speakers use idioms all the time, and they often do it in an unconscious way. This means that the communication with them can be very difficult. They use idioms to express something that other words do not express as clearly or as cleverly. Of course choice of words depends on the person who is speaking, on the situation and the place. If people are friends and they are talking in private there is no reason to avoid using idioms, slang or jargon. But, if in the same situation one of speakers is foreigner they should not use idioms until this person will master the language completely. Learning idioms cause a lot of troubles to English learners because they do not know the culture and history behind the idioms. That is way they often use idioms inappropriately. Learners use idiomatic expressions carefully because they are afraid of using them incorrectly. In formal situations, it means when one is talking with a stranger or speaks publicly than one should shun idioms. Using idioms one should know whether an idiom is appropriate in certain situation. When idioms are used judiciously, they can even improve the atmosphere of one’s formal writing and provide more interesting descriptions. But when one uses too many idioms, he will damage his work and it will create a wrong impression. Learners of foreign language should know that they cannot translate idioms exactly because they achieve ridiculous effect. The results of foreigner’s translation may be bewildering to the English native speaker. Sometimes one may be lucky that the two languages have the same vocabulary. It is connected with close relation between language and culture. Idioms can be learnt only by listening to native speakers or reading texts which contains idioms. â€Å"Mastery of idioms comes only slowly, through careful study and observation, through practice and experience.† (Seidl and McMordie 1978:8) Idioms with a body part component Many English idioms are related to external and internal organs of the human body. Body parts idioms contain following aspects: ââ€"  body parts which are connected with senses ââ€"  internal organs ââ€"  limbs and limbs’ elements ââ€"  other body parts Body idioms connected with senses Ear Idioms Ear – is an organ of hearing. It is a part of human auditory system and it is used to listen to the sounds. Ear idioms have both positive and negative meaning. Half of them are positively loaded; the other part is negatively loaded. Eye idioms Eye – is an organ of vision. According to Macmillan dictionary (2007) eye is one of two body parts used for seeing. Most of the idioms are positively loaded. Nose idioms Nose – it is a part of people’s face that is used for smelling and breathing. Half of nose idioms have a positive meaning the other half have a negative meaning. Skin idioms According to Mcmillan English dictionary (2007) skin is the external layer of human’s and animal’s body. Skin also enables feeling. Body idioms connected with limbs and limbs’ elements Arm idioms Arm – is an upper limb of human body with your hands at the end. Six arm idioms have a positive meaning, one is rather neutral and the others have a negative meaning. Shoulder idioms Shoulder – it is one of two parts of the body between one’s neck and the top of one’s arms. Hand idioms In dictionaries there are many different uses of word ‘hand’. As a body part ‘hand’ is at the end of each arm that people use for picking up and holding things, but it is also used for moving and touching things. Hand provides a good source for metonymic extensions and hand-based idioms convey both positive and negative meanings. That said, a hand that takes does not give, your hand and not the charity of others, someone’s hand outruns his/her tongue (speech), someone’s hand and strike, someone with a long hand, someone’s hand on his/her heart, someone with an empty hand, someone with a loose hand, someone with a short hand, someone with a dry hand, someone dug his/her grave by hand, someone withdrew his/her hand from someone/ something, soften your hand (imperative), as left by your hand, no power in hand, putting one’s hand in another’s throat and nobody hit him/her on the hand are all instances of hand based idioms that express negative meanings. Finger idioms Fingers are the long, thin parts at the end of human’s hands. Half of the finger idioms have a positive meaning and the other part is negative. Leg idioms Leg – is a lower limb of human body with your foot at the end. Bigger parts of leg idioms have negative meaning (5), one is neutral and the rest are positive. Foot idioms Foot – the part of your body that is at the end of the leg on which a human or an animal stands. Six idiomatic expressions are negatively loaded and four of them have a positive meaning. Toe idioms Toe is the one of the individual parts at the end of human’s foot. Only one idiom (be/keep on one’s toes) have a positive meaning, one is neutral (from top to toes) and the rest are negatively loaded. Internal idioms Heart idioms Heart is the organ in human’s chest that makes blood flow around the body. The term refers to our feelings and emotions in reference to people’s character. Heart is considered as the most important and influential part of human body. It is the place where people’s deepest emotions come from. It is believed that heart controls emotions and it is used to talk about love and happiness. This is why, the most of idioms are positively loaded. 80% of heart idioms contain the word ‘heart’ in Polish and 20% of idioms are not related to heart or feelings. Bone idioms Bone is one of the hard parts that form a fame inside the human’s or animal’s body. Bone function is to move and protect the internal organs of the body. Bones create the skeleton. This is why they used to represent death. Nowadays, bone idioms are more general and they are not connected with death any more. Most of them (six) have a negative meaning, three are positively loaded and one is neutral. Tongue idioms Tongue is the organ in your mouth. It is a long piece of flesh fixed to the bottom of human’s or animal’s mouth. People use it for tasting and speaking. Tongue, mostly is use to talk but it also stands for a style of expression, a particular way of speaking and writing. Almost all tongue idioms have a negative meaning, which is surprising. It is the first body part which is so negatively loaded. None of idioms have a clear positive meaning. Only one is neutral: have something on the tip of one’s tongue. Other body parts idioms Head idioms Head is the top part of human’s or animal’s body that has brain, eyes, mouth and nose. Head can also stand for mind and thought. It is often connected with reason, thoughts or memories. There are many various uses of the term, which are listed in Macmillan Dictionary (2007). Six head idioms have a positive meaning and four of them are negatively loaded. Head provides an essential source domain for characterizing people human states and behavior. The implicit meanings of head-based idioms are predominantly negative. This being the case, someone’s head getting big – which is equivalent to the English swollen-headed – is used rhetorically as a metonymy to stand for someone who is arrogant, whereas someone with a big head refers metonymically to any knowledgeable person (scientist, engineer or professor) who is most appreciated by others, or to any person in power (minister, prime minister, or university president) who has mastery over issues others do not. Someone with a heavy head, which is equivalent to the English sleepy head, symbolizes a person who is less likely to wake up early and almost misses the clock alarm. Other idioms which also implicate negative meanings include someone’s got dry or solid head, which is a metonymy for the attribute of stubbornness and which is parallel to the English hard-headed, and someone’s head and pillow, which symbolizes loneliness (unmarried or friendless person) and metonymically stands for anybody who need not look after anyone except him/herself. When someone constructed roads in my head – which is equivalent to the English drilling a hole in someone’s head – is said by someone, then the speaker is complaining that he/she is tormented by someone pertinacious, one who is persistently nagging and over-enquiring about something in a very unpleasant manner. Face idioms The conventional pragmatic implications of the idioms could also be either positive or negative. Instances of metonymic face-based idioms of negative implications which are of frequent use include someone has been eating my face, someone should not be given face, someone with a bloodless face, someone slept on his/her face = someone slept on belly, and someone’s face stops the livelihood. Someone has been eating my face is a metonymic expression used to stand for someone who relentlessly asks about something and insists on his request. This idiom is also used to stand for creditors who insist on their request and seek to recover debt from debtors. Someone should not be given face is also a metonymy for a meddling person and this idiom is used as advice not to establish a relationship with any such type of people. There are some people who are intrusive overbearing in a very intolerable way, and if someone shows them a good welcome and smile in their faces once, they are encouraged to come back and hope to get more and more, and ask someone at every opportunity to give them what they want. If someone forgives and disregards an intrusive person’s mistakes, then the apologizer might go too far and keep insulting and hurting the apologize unless the apologizer is stopped from doing so. Further, there are some disturbing people who overstay their welcomes, in that if respected and welcomed in someone’s home or workplace, they come to visit someone every day in order for the host to undertake the duty of hospitality. For all these possible reasons, some people might use the metonymical idiom of someone should not be given face. Someone with a bloodless face is a metonymic expression that symbolizes rude and shameless people who are likely to speak in a way that may be hurtful and offensive to others; people who do not care whether they are right or not due to over brazenness and lack of modesty and understanding. The metonymical idiom of someone slept on his/her face is normally used to describe someone who slept worried or slept because of the severity of fatigue. Finally, the expression someone’s face stops the livelihood is used to describe pessimistic people who are likely to get someone down. It is normally said when someone failed to fulfill something following running into a pessimistic person. Metonymical face-based idioms of positive implications are relatively few and they include you can see your face in it and your face and not the moonlight. The former is used as a metonymy to signify anything tremendously clean such as car, door, floor, etc. It is so clean that one can see one’s face in it as if it were a mirror. The latter is said while addressing the beloved person and used to express the longing and welcome to the beloved person after a long absence. Also, someone with white face is a metonymy for a peaceful person who is innocent of some charges blamed on him/her accidently. Back idioms Back is the body part that is opposite side to people’s chest, it is between the neck and the top of legs. Half of back idioms are positive and the other half has a negative meaning. 2. Calculation Idioms are one of the most difficult parts of the vocabulary of any language because they have unpredictable meanings or collocations and grammar. One of the main difficulties for learners is deciding in which situation it is correct to use an idiom, i.e. the level of style (neutral, informal, slang, taboo, etc. idioms). Learners of English may also have difficulty deciding whether an idiom is natural or appropriate in a certain situation. It is extremely unwise to translate idioms into or from one’s native language. One may be lucky that the two languages have the same form and vocabulary, but in most cases the result will be utterly bewildering to the English native speaker – and possibly highly amusing. (Seidl 1988) Today’s English has a general tendency towards a more idiomatic usage. Even educated usage has become more tolerant, so the use of idiomatic expressions increased in frequency. Idioms are, in a very broad sense, metaphorical rather than literal: they are effectively metaphors that have become ‘fixed’ in language. In some cases, it is fairly easy to see how the idiomatic meaning relates to the literal meaning, in other cases, the literal meaning may make no sense at all. The primary goal of this study was to investigate the positive and negative pragmatic implications of body-based idioms that are enhanced by metonymy. It was found that metonymical idioms that include lexis for head, face, eye, hand, tongue, and leg predominantly implicate negative meanings. Also, whereas metonymy-enhanced idioms that include body parts such as hair, nose, tongue, teeth, back, skin and blood were found to be expressing positive and negative meanings almost equally, metonymical idioms that are based on mouth and neck were found to be conveying positive meaning only. It might be possible to argue that the use of the majority of body-based idioms is enhanced by the need to be polite. Having said that, we could say that the use to which these idioms are established and maintained is to protect the speaker’s and/or the addressee’s face. Idioms in general and those examined in this study in particular are all examples of indirect communication of opinions, human states and behaviour. Almost every body idiom is related to human being, to its behaviour, qualities and everyday life. Understanding of the metaphorical meaning of idiomatic phrases is related to everyday experience and the world around us. It causes that metaphors are very important in people’s lives. This is whyone should know idioms especially when he is learning language. Metaphors are part of the language. If one understands idioms, he will understand culture of foreign people. 3. Some Examples All ears If you are all ears, you are very interested and ready to listen to what another person wants to tell you. Tell me what happened – I’m all ears. All in your head If something is all in your head, you have imagined it and it is not real. Stop thinking that everybody hates you. It’s all in your head. Cost somebody an arm and a leg If something costs an arm and a leg, it is very expensive. This television set cost me an arm and leg. It wasn’t cheap at all. Armed to the teeth A person who is armed to the teeth is using or carrying a lot of weapons. The enemy soldiers were armed to the teeth. It was impossible to defeat them. At each other’s throats If two people are at each other’s throats, they are arguing in an angry way. It looks like they are at each other’s throatsagain. They just can’t agree on anything. Have the guts If you have the guts to do something, you are brave enough to do it. He has the guts to express his opinions in public. Hit a nerve If you hit a nerve, you upset someone by talking about an uncomfortable topic. I think you really hit a nerve when you mentioned her divorce. Pain in the neck If someone or something is a pain in the neck, he/she/it is very annoying. Angela is a real pain in the neck. She annoys just about everyone she meets. Pick someone’s brains If you pick someone’s brains, you ask the person for advice, suggestions and information. I need some ideas. Can I pick your brains? Play it by ear If you play something by ear, you deal with a situation as it develops rather than according to any plan. We don’t have a plan. We’ll just have to play it by ear. Pull someone’s leg If you pull someone’s leg, you make someone believe something that is not true, usually as a joke. Don’t take her seriously. She’s just pulling your leg. Put your foot down If you put your foot down, you stop something from happening by using your authority. She was out of control but her parents finally decided to put their foot down. 4. References 1. Courtney, R., Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, Essex England: Longman Group UK Ltd, 1994; 2. Gibbs, Raymond W. (1994): The Poetics of Mind: Figurative Thought, Language, and Under-standing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3. Gibbs, Raymond W. & Berg, E. (1999): Embodied metaphor and perceptual symbols. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22, 4. Gibbs, Raymond W., Lima, Paula & Francuzo, Edson (2004): Metaphor is grounded in embodied experience. Journal of Pragmatics 36, 5. Gibbs, Raymond W. & Wilson, Nicole L. (2002): Bodily Action and Metaphorical Meaning. 6. Goossens, Louis (1990): Metaphtonymy: The interaction of metaphor and metonymy in 7. expressions for linguistic action. Cognitive Linguistics1, 8. Halliday, Michael A.K. (1985): An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold. 9. Hansen, Gyde (2005): Experience and Emotion in Empirical Translation Research with 10. Think-Aloud and Retrospection. Meta 50, 11. Flavell, L. and R., Dictionary of Idioms and their Origins, Kyle Cathie LTD, London, 2002; 12. Manser, M., Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins, London: Sphere Books Ltd., 1990; 13. Rogers, J., The Dictionary of Clichà ©s, New Jersey: Wings Books, 1994; 14. Seidl, J., English Idioms, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988; 15. Warren, H., Oxford Learner’s Dictionary of English Idioms, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994; 16. ***, The COBUILD Dictionary of Idioms, London, Harper Collins Publishers, 1995 17. ***, The Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, Longman Group UK Ltd., 1979; 18. ***, The Oxford Dictionary of Idioms, New York, Oxford University Press Inc., 1999; 19. ***, The Penguin Dictionary of English Idioms, Penguin Books Ltd., 1994; 20. ***, The Wordsworth Dictionary of Idioms, Ware: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1993; 21. ***, The Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase & Fable, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1993.